tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-86114126540929359242024-02-19T09:16:04.095-08:00Ask A GeologistPeople are always asking questions about geology, from rocks they pick up in their backyard, to why not use a nuclear device to "pop" a restive volcano. This blog will cover the gamut of the fascinating world of Geoscience. It's sort of a "Geology for Dummies"... but you're 'WAY smarter than that!AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.comBlogger134125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-73362561289449588822016-10-15T20:04:00.001-07:002016-10-15T20:04:43.585-07:00LOCATION CHANGE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
This blog has been moved to <a href="http://www.askaboutgeology.com/"><u><b>http://www.askaboutgeology.com</b></u></a><br />
...where new monthly and bi-monthly entries may be found. </div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-46764711760506248842016-03-04T17:00:00.000-08:002016-03-04T17:00:31.414-08:00Can you Drill into a Supervolcano to Relieve Pressure?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--><br />
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="267">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As recently as February 2016 an article in a prestigious
science journal (Nature) raises the question if a nuclear blast will have an effect
on a volcanic eruption? I’m continually amazed at the fixation people have with
nuclear devices; this “nuclear question” arose during the 2004 Mount St Helens
eruption and again during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon seafloor oil blowout. This is a variant
on the same theme, but at least doesn’t suggest some fallout-creating
experiment. People who think a nuclear device is comparable to the energy released by a volcano just haven't seen a restless volcano up close. They are a whole lot bigger than they seem to be in the films. Mount St Helens is a relatively small volcano, yet it still took me nearly 6 hours to walk out of the center crater. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: So I am watching this tv show (What on Earth) that NASA
scientists have found a super volcano that has a potential to explode in a
relatively near future in Italy. I'm super curious about a lot of things, but I
won't waste your time. Whether if it's true or not, my question(s) is(are): Would
it be possible to hypothetically drill into a deep caldera to release pressure
on a magma chamber? I get that the chamber is quite a ways down and it would
cost a FORTUNE, but if a drill was created to do so, would it work? And (if so)
would it be a plausible reason for the world to come together to survive? Thanks
for your time, I know you guys are busy.</b></span></div>
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>
</b></span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>- Jon T</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: A thoughtful question. You are probably referring to
Campo Flegri, a 13-km diameter nested caldera in western Italy. However, there are
quite a number of much bigger supervolcanoes around the earth, including at
least three "owned" by the United States: Yellowstone (mainly in Wyoming),
Long Valley (California), and Veniaminof (Aleutians). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Unless you spent time on a drill-rig, you would probably not
realize that even very large ones used for hunting deep hydrocarbons (like the
Deepwater Horizon rig) have limited borehole sizes, particularly at depth,
where they reach a human body diameter or less. The active magma chamber at
Yellowstone is at least 45 miles (70 km) across northeast-southwest (wider at
depth), and lies as shallow as 4 miles (6 km). There is a reason for all the
geysers and Morning Glory pools: rain and snow-fall seep downward until they
reach an upper magma chamber that is estimated to contain perhaps 48,000 cubic
kilometers (11,000+ cubic miles) of molten magma. *</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Perhaps you can see where this is leading. A single
drill-rig would not even be seen in an image that encompassed the entire
caldera. Not even all the drill-rigs on earth (if they could even successfully
drill down that deep) would have any noticeable effect. The scales are just so
many orders of magnitude greater. Think of a fly doing push-ups on the roof of
your house. You get the idea. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">There was an experiment years ago to drill through a recent,
100+ meter-thick recent crust in Kilauea Iki crater on the Big Island of
Hawai'i. The drill crew kept losing drill bits to the heat, but eventually they
got a hole far enough down that a camera above it would catch a red glow from
incandescence at some depth below the top of that lava crust. I don’t think
they penetrated into the lava. Even if we had giant drills and lots of them,
getting a drill bit to a magma chamber is not really possible. And it takes a
LONG time to drill even a small hole in cold rock to those shallowest depths. </span></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">* Incidentally, the reason volcanologists are not
particularly worried about Yellowstone right now is that estimates of crystal
content in the magma mush (from seismic data) range upwards of 95%. That means
it's very hot, but verging on solid. We don’t rest on this knowledge however. Geologic
history tells us that a shot of deeper mantle basalt into the base of that
crystal mush can quickly remobilize and prime the whole system for another vast
eruption. The last supervolcano-scale eruption was 640,000 years ago, and
before that another at about 1.2 million years ago. From our experience, we
would first certainly see a ramping-up series of warning signs, including
inflation leading to regional ground-tilt, rock-breaking manifested in a
seismic swarm with a pattern to it, and the release of unusually large amounts
of volcanogenic gases such as H<sub>2</sub>S and CO<sub>2</sub>. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: Thank you so much for the information! I was extremely
excited to see someone replied. I guess I didn't realize our drill rigs were so
small -- and the volcanoes so freakin' huge! That's absolutely mind-blowing. I
love learning these new things about geology, the planet, space, etc. Science
just fascinates me. Thank you for your time! </b></span></div>
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>
</b></span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>- Jon</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-79775329098677008372016-02-02T18:31:00.000-08:002016-02-02T18:38:29.951-08:00Please sir answer this question in 24 hours or... ASK YOUR OWN SOUL!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--><br />
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="267">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is a question that I actually answered in some detail three months ago, so when it came in I thought I would just point the individual at my earlier response. However, I was struck by HOW I was asked this time. To give readers a sense of what we sometimes encounter in our email in-boxes, I share this, but I'm disguising the name and identity of the questioner. You can't make this stuff up, to paraphrase Dave Barry. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>Q: Hello sir</b></span></div>
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>In the defination of earthquake</b></span></div>
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>Eathquake is the sudden terror or shaking of earths crust
which lasts for the short time. But<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in
2015 the earthquake in nepal not lasted for a short time . So why we use that
sentance , " which last for the short time".But Generaly in most
cases it not lasted for shot time. Sir please answer this question in 24 hrs
please sir i sent this question you not answered please answer . Please tel me
if you want to hep ,me<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or not. I f you
want to help, if you want to make a bright student please help me . aSK YOUR
OWN SOUL AND HELP.</b></span></div>
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><b>tHANKYOU</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #990000;">A: </span></b><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="267">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";}
</style>
<![endif]--><b><span style="color: #990000;">
</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #990000;">I cannot answer questions about your soul, nor about mine.
This is not something you would ever address to a scientist.</span></b></div>
<b><span style="color: #990000;">
</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b><span style="color: #990000;">
</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #990000;">Volunteer geoscientists in the US Geological Survey do not see questions
that arrive during western hemisphere weekends. Please do not blame us for not
instantly replying to your questions from <Asia>.</span></b></div>
<b><span style="color: #990000;">
</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b><span style="color: #990000;">
</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #990000;">I have no idea what definition you are referencing, since
you did not provide that information. The simple answer is the larger the moment
magnitude (Mm) of an earthquake, the longer the coda. In other words, the greater the
energy released, the longer the apparent shaking will last. In fact, you can get a rough idea of how big a regional earthquake is by timing the shaking.</span></b></div>
<br /></div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-26993725185173965972016-01-31T21:41:00.000-08:002016-01-31T21:41:54.031-08:00Epigenetic or Syngenetic Deposits: Which is Easier to Find?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--><br />
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="267">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";}
</style>
<![endif]--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
The following is a rather esoteric question – definitely not
an elementary school question – but it provides a neat teaching moment or
opportunity. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: Between epigenetic and syngenetic deposits, which deposit
would be easier to find?</b></span></div>
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>
</b></span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>- Rayon P. </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Let's review the definitions of the two types of deposit
first:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Syngenetic Deposit</b>: </span></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This is a
mineral deposit that was formed <u>at the same time as</u> its parent rock –
and is always enclosed by it. There are two types of syngenetic deposits:
igneous and sedimentary. Some examples of these kinds of mineral deposits include
paleo-placer diamonds found in southern Venezuela. These diamonds are called
“paleo-placer” diamonds because they weathered out of the ancient Tepuis, eerie
platform-like mountains that are the inspiration for Aracnophobia and Avatar.
There is also stratabound potash (e.g., pinkish salts found in the prairie
provinces of Canada and in Central Asia, that are made of potassium, a critical
element for agriculture and the “secret” of the “Green Revolution” of the past
century. Other examples include the huge nickel deposits found around the huge,
ancient asteroid impact crater near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. There are many
other examples, of course.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><b>Epigenetic Deposit</b>:</span></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This is a
mineral deposit that formed <u>following</u> the development or emplacement of
the enclosing or host rocks. These kinds of deposits might be found on top of
the host rocks, or more commonly IN the host rocks. Some examples of these
kinds of deposits include placer platinum group elements (e.g., palladium,
rhodium, etc.), and Comstock-style placer gold deposits (think of what
triggered the Gold Rush in 1849 in California). Another example are the huge porphyry
copper deposits and sedimentary copper deposits found all over the world. Note:
the latter example are secondary concentrations of copper in sedimentary rocks…
the copper seeped in after the sediments were formed.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For
syngenetic deposits, especially those formed during sedimentary deposition, it
makes sense that if you can find one economic outcrop of the mineral you’re
looking for, then you could follow the strata it is found in to find more of
that mineral of interest. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Epigenetic
deposits, on the other hand, tend to be easier to see: by the definition above
they disrupt the environment (the host rocks) that they are found in. Examples
that come to mind are the low-sulfide gold-quartz deposits I found while
working in the jungle in southern Venezuela. The gold there is found in thick
mostly-quartz veins that fill faults and fractures in the geologic units that
host them. Porphyry copper deposits on the other hand are huge things that I
visited and occasionally worked in while living in the southwestern USA. These
are the source of much of the wiring in your house that let you read this on a
computer screen – and then walk out of the room later without stumbling in the
dark. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Porphyry coppers, as they are
often termed, form huge bulls-eye halos in the host rock. These haloes can
usually be seen from the air, and can be detected with specialized instruments
like a radiometric imaging system in an aircraft, or specialized electrical geophysical
methods like induced polarization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In both
cases, there are wide variabilities is how easy these deposits are to find, depending
on the particular resource being sought. In virtually ALL cases, the “easy”
deposits have already been found, and modern geoscientists must search beneath
younger sediments or lava that have buried these deposits after they were formed. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #990000;">
</span><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In other
words, the hard-to-find ones are what we are looking for now.</span></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-14296873986970708762015-12-11T17:43:00.000-08:002015-12-11T17:43:16.501-08:00Terraforming Mars<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 18.6667px; line-height: 19.9733px;">Here's a Q&A that has nothing to do with earthly geology, but may have some instructive content for future geologists. There is usually at least SOME science in SciFi novels!</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 18.6667px; line-height: 19.9733px;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><span style="font-size: 18.6667px; line-height: 19.9733px;">Q: </span>What would happen to the Martian atmosphere, over the course of the next 100 years, if we could build a machine on Mars that could output the equivalent quantity and composition of greenhouse gasses as are released on earth (approximately) every year? Thanks for your time, hopefully this has not already been answered! </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;">- Kyle R</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 18.6667px; line-height: 19.9733px;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="font-size: 18.6667px; line-height: 19.9733px;">A: </span>That's a rather unique question, but it begs several critical assumptions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">According to a recent Science article, Mars lost its original atmosphere billions of years ago because the planet lost (if it ever had) its magnetic field. As a result the solar wind (high energy charged particles blasted out from the Sun) stripped most of Mars' atmosphere away. So one assumption is that the planetary magnetic field is somehow restored.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Another assumption is a bit more obvious: where would the carbon and oxygen come from? Certainly not the planet's crust, as it has been degassing for billions of years and is a depleted desert now. Hundreds of trillions of tons of material would have to be brought to Mars' surface. This is actually not as unreasonable as it may sound: comets can do (and have done) this in the past... but it would require a number of pretty large comets. A colliding planetary body from the Oort Cloud on the scale of Sedna could bring the mass as well as restart the magnetic dynamo, however. A collision like that is thought to be the reason why we still have a magnetic field here on Earth... and a Moon as big as the one we have.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A final assumption is also necessary: a weaker planetary gravity field would make it easier for gases to escape the planet. So another assumption would be that somehow the planet became much more dense. A comet impact couldn't solve this one. A collision with something like Sedna would only marginally increase the gravity field of the planet. Weak gravity -> easier for atmospheric gases to escape.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">I'm not a specialist in atmospheric dynamics, so I don't want to speculate what would happen if all three of these conditions were somehow met. I suspect that Mars' currently pink sky might end up a different color, however.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Thanks for the thoughtful reply Jeff, I appreciate you taking the time. The thrust behind my question was basically to get an understanding of the scale of the terraforming humans have engineered on Earth and what the impact would be if that same process was applied to another planet of similar size. I guess looking back I should have simply asked what the impact might be of 'magically' pumping 7,000 million metric tons of carbon dioxide into the Martian atmosphere every year (7000 million metric tons being an approximate average volume created by human factors on Earth). Thanks again and enjoy your weekend!</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><o:p> -</o:p>Kyle</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 18.6667px; line-height: 19.9733px;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Yes, I was fascinated by the book Dune and the movie Total
Recall, but the physicist in me kept slapping me on the back of the head:
There's no evidence of sequestered carbon on Mars except frozen CO2 at the poles. There is only rare
(indirect) evidence of water - it's a desert world. Water being low density, it
would be hard to hide it on a planet like Mars or Arrakis. THAT said, I
participated in several expeditions across the Empty Quarter of Saudi Arabia.
Ambient humidity there is about 2% (in an Arizona summer it is around 20%). It
is so dry that you have to "snuff" a handful of water every hour all
night long because your mucous membranes are on fire - and cracking from the desiccation. However, I did some geo-electrical soundings along our two routes to
the Wabar Impact site and found evidence of conductors - probably above-bedrock water
- in several locations at about 60 - 100 meter depths. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-56408622467014442432015-11-11T17:00:00.000-08:002015-11-11T20:30:52.572-08:00How To NOT Go Off-The-Wall Freakin' CRAZY...<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><span style="color: red;">...when a Cascadia Earthquake hits.</span></b><br />
<br />
From personal experience, when a really big earthquake hits, it is extremely unnerving. In fact, my first earthquake was a magnitude 7.3 event in Southern California, and the serious shaking lasted not much more than 3 minutes.<br />
<br />
However, it seemed like a lifetime to me then. If asked a week later, I probably would have said that it lasted at least a half an hour.<br />
<br />
Look at the following diagram, taken from Wikipedia:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAj6sCr6ODTCb_lPlxHn6n1FEIg9hw16LipOdPfZUHY1ZevrTYTklhaB-qdZ61-4jNTMRpFGPk3faebqzgLdU5huWZ2pUn3HN2cyz8VqeAp8im2lHmT1qsvNWV-Ec6rR58aC4ljTQdD7I/s1600/P-S-Raleigh-Waves.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="178" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAj6sCr6ODTCb_lPlxHn6n1FEIg9hw16LipOdPfZUHY1ZevrTYTklhaB-qdZ61-4jNTMRpFGPk3faebqzgLdU5huWZ2pUn3HN2cyz8VqeAp8im2lHmT1qsvNWV-Ec6rR58aC4ljTQdD7I/s320/P-S-Raleigh-Waves.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
The P is what woke me up. It hit with a bang.<br />
The S is what rattled and then broke the windows, and stutter-walked my bed 30 cm.<br />
The R is what finally flipped me out of my bed and onto the floor.<br />
<br />
It took several days for the information on this event to filter down through the scientists to the government entities, to the news media, to my parents, and then to me as a 6-yr-old child. By then we were back in our house, the power was restored, and we had water pressure again.<br />
<br />
A Cascadia subduction earthquake might reach a moment magnitude 9+ when it next occurs.<b><i> That will be at least 100 times more energy than the piddly 7.3 event that launched a sleepy 6-yr-old out of his bed in Bakersfield, California long ago. </i></b>If I found a M=7.3 to be that terrifying, imagine how bad a M=9+ event will be.<br />
<br />
<b><u><span style="color: #990000;">There are two ways to deal with the terror:</span></u></b><br />
<br />
<b>#1.</b> Understand immediately what is happening and what will come next.<br />
<b>#2.</b> Be prepared for it. Know that you have your bases covered.<br />
<br />
<b>#2</b> is something that many people more or less do (some do OK, some do better, and some do extremely well at this):<br />
<b>A.</b> Have a family plan in place. Where do we meet? What channels on the battery-powered, $40 hand-held walkie-talkies will we be using to find each other?<br />
<b>B. </b>Have supplies at hand, including<br />
i. Food. And don't count your refrigerator contents here.<br />
ii. Water. A LOT more water than you might think.<br />
iii. A battery-or-crank-powered Radio<br />
iv. Batteries. Flashlights. LOTS of batteries.<br />
v. Blankets and sleeping bags, and/or a heat source to keep warm.<br />
<b>C.</b> Start checking up on your neighbors, and offer to share your stuff with them. People you may hardly know will become life-long friends really quickly.<br />
<br />
<span style="color: red;"><b>However, the purpose of THIS blog entry or chapter is to help you deal with #1: understand what in the world is going on, so you don't go crazy.</b> </span><br />
<br />
Next, look at the following diagram:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEE6zypn9i0Pk58s4iYCn3ANE0MHxGWxoLxw8mWoK6V-nX-Ls4bmwjHVs1wi2mAk4531rKuLX19vrLllKG9agaC0LnZvvOVvSNVACTkKyWBRT-0wNNRZfU8dujpTupWoZkxw6j7pLIv1Y/s1600/Travel-Time-Curves.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEE6zypn9i0Pk58s4iYCn3ANE0MHxGWxoLxw8mWoK6V-nX-Ls4bmwjHVs1wi2mAk4531rKuLX19vrLllKG9agaC0LnZvvOVvSNVACTkKyWBRT-0wNNRZfU8dujpTupWoZkxw6j7pLIv1Y/s1600/Travel-Time-Curves.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
This will help you to understand the <b><i>TIMING</i></b> difference between the several kinds of seismic waves. The P wave arrives with a bang, like someone with a large hammer just whacked one side of your house. The S wave will feel different: slewing everything back and forth, perpendicular to a line between you and the epicenter of the earthquake. The R (which stands for Raleigh, or surface) waves will feel to you like you are in a small skiff after a large boat roars past, careless of his wake. You will feel like you are rolling around, up and down, and sideways . You always end up pretty much in the same place with each complete roll. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: red;">All these things are important clues for you. This is what you do:</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><u>FIRST</u></b>: as soon as the P-wave hits, look at your watch... which we both hope includes a second hand.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><u>Second</u></b>: as soon as the S-wave hits, think about what direction is PERPENDICULAR to that sickening side-to-side motion: this gives you the important clue as to<b><i> where this thing is coming from</i></b>. If the slewing motion is north-south, then the earthquake epicenter is either east or (more likely in this case) west of you.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><u>Third</u></b>: as soon as the S-wave hits, look at your watch again. Subtract the P-wave arrival time in seconds from the S-wave arrival time.<b><i> That difference tells you how far away</i></b> <b><i>the hypocenter</i></b> (the actual sub-seafloor rock rupture)<b><i> is from you</i></b>.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
Use the following diagram to convert that P-S time difference into a distance::</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggma_CPLeM6vn9ooTN5lRtx5BW6URZBnc4zgimPfRuiOzKDVMP5HWoAwwP-Fz8X1bTaYcmNBho9fDPEe5QNMM9-PxHO8bAKYgTlkX9W36hEiA9xSZphOgPV6ae46sGrYYL7s5jWSS2X9Y/s1600/P-S_DistanceToEpicenter.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggma_CPLeM6vn9ooTN5lRtx5BW6URZBnc4zgimPfRuiOzKDVMP5HWoAwwP-Fz8X1bTaYcmNBho9fDPEe5QNMM9-PxHO8bAKYgTlkX9W36hEiA9xSZphOgPV6ae46sGrYYL7s5jWSS2X9Y/s320/P-S_DistanceToEpicenter.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><u>Fourth</u></b>: <i>KEEP TRACK OF THE TIME</i> even after you have this number. If the event is a M=9+ event, the ground will keep shaking and heaving for a full 5 - 6 minutes. THIS will give you a sense of how bad things will be in the following several weeks. If it was just a <b><i>segment</i></b> of the Cascadia Subduction Fault breaking, then the time could be as little as 3 - 4 minutes. This is GOOD. If the heaving and shaking runs up to 6 minutes... well, you already have #2 above in place, right? So you are prepared.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><u>This will help</u></b>: If you live in Portland or Seattle, and the P-S time difference is 20 - 45 seconds, then the event is far enough away (or close enough, depending on your point of view) to be<b><i> The Big One</i></b>: A Cascadia Subduction Event. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: #741b47;">But YOU WILL ALREADY UNDERSTAND WHAT IS GOING ON even before the first news reports start coming in (assuming you have a flashlight close and a battery-powered radio on hand). </span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: #741b47;">AND YOU HAVE YOUR PREPARATIONS IN PLACE.</span></b> </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: red;">And no, you are not crazy: you are informed <u>and</u> prepared.</span></b> </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<br /></div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-31558257665603883142015-10-30T16:28:00.000-07:002015-11-08T19:10:55.461-08:00The Coast is Toast<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
When I was a child the White Wolf Fault, a splay-fault of the great San Andreas, ruptured about 60 km (40 miles) from my home. I recall hearing a bang, then hearing the windows rattling hard - and finally breaking. Shortly afterwards, I was thrown out of bed onto the floor. I didn't <i>fall</i> out of bed, I was<i> thrown</i> from my bed to the middle of my bedroom floor. When my mother called to me from her bedroom to come to her (she was trying to hold onto her own bed at the time), she told me that I replied<b><i> "I can't. The walls keep hitting me."</i></b> On our hands and knees we finally made it as a small family out to our back yard (my Mom was fearful of the gas line rupturing and suffocating or burning us all). This earthquake had a moment magnitude of about 7.3<br />
<br />
The movie "Volcano" made the expression <b><i>"The Coast Is Toast"</i></b> famous. "Volcano" postulated a volcano somehow under the San Andreas Fault. When the film came out, my volcanologist colleagues cringed. While volcanoes ARE associated with faults, they are associated with deep subduction faults, where ocean floor is over-run by a continent in what is called a thrust fault. Think of the Cascades range, far inboard from the Cascadia subduction fault 50 - 100 kilometers offshore. The volcanoes themselves are found far inland from where the huge subduction fault reaches the ocean floor.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFOZlFNewIF0tpgZwE-DzITVs5YPwftD6iBWtpnnHdstXw7hLkOG7jrohi8PltLjUMQFuHvMt7pICB1YP4MEqBrSjNezoJ-MpPr96YHHwmoPz54mbmS67FqySX5-MFKtn5uJ-vaAWNnqY/s1600/Cascade_Volcanic_Arc.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFOZlFNewIF0tpgZwE-DzITVs5YPwftD6iBWtpnnHdstXw7hLkOG7jrohi8PltLjUMQFuHvMt7pICB1YP4MEqBrSjNezoJ-MpPr96YHHwmoPz54mbmS67FqySX5-MFKtn5uJ-vaAWNnqY/s320/Cascade_Volcanic_Arc.jpg" width="216" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
However, the expression <b><i>"The Coast IS Toast"</i></b> is not that far off the mark in the sense of massive destruction that could visit the Pacific Northwest coast if and when a Cascadia subduction event occurs. It could be a magnitude of 9.0 or higher - this would represent over 100 times more energy released that what woke me up years ago.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDXqyErXZS4_h1199BbnKSp8LEcyuCrPxAjNgIMK_WDMqltUmpGpJXNijg_TBzibNfCwy9f0lc93YtRH8HN3v2zVd1hLl_FWGnu38g-Oxv4JmU4Ovd-aCbGO-BKgZaVGhhn6IMFYJ2LXE/s1600/Cascadia_earthquake_sources.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="318" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDXqyErXZS4_h1199BbnKSp8LEcyuCrPxAjNgIMK_WDMqltUmpGpJXNijg_TBzibNfCwy9f0lc93YtRH8HN3v2zVd1hLl_FWGnu38g-Oxv4JmU4Ovd-aCbGO-BKgZaVGhhn6IMFYJ2LXE/s320/Cascadia_earthquake_sources.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
The Cascadia Subduction Zone (CSZ) is just that: a plate-subduction thrust fault spread over 1,000 kilometer length, extending from offshore Vancouver Island in Canada to offshore northern California. It's width depends on what you count, but earthquake imaging of the down-going oceanic slab extends well into central Washington and Oregon. Three major oceanic floor plates, the largest being the Juan de Fuca, are being over-ridden by a westward-moving North American continent. Part of the thrust fault is lubricated by the ocean-floor sediments atop the Juan de Fuca plate, and part of the down-going slab is partially melting in the upper Mantle, giving rise to that almost linear string of Cascades volcanoes. These volcanoes extend from Mt Garibaldi in British Columbia to Mount Shasta and Mount Lassen in Northern California.<br />
<br />
But in between these parts is a segment, extending the entire length of the fault zone, that is <i>stuck</i>. The lubricating fluids have been squeezed out by pressure with increasing depth, and the stuck part is like a dry patch in the center of your hands as you try to slide one past the other. THIS is where the the rub lies, so to speak. In 2004 a similar subduction fault near Aceh in western Indonesia ruptured, creating a magnitude 9.3 earthquake. The tsunami alone killed over 250,000 people around the Indian Ocean as far away as Mozambique. When a similar subduction fault offshore of northern Japan ruptured in 2011, the surface area of the fault that was displaced or ripped was enormous: 300 kilometers long by 200 kilometers down-dip. This is important, because the surface area ruptured correlates closely with the energy released. "Down-dip" on the San Andreas Fault is only about 10 kilometers - because this fault is more or less vertical, and the rock becomes plastic at about 10 kilometers depth.<br />
<br />
There is a security camera video of a 15-meter (50') wave breaching the 5-meter (16 ft) tsunami-protection walls of the Fukushima Dai-Ichi nuclear power plant on the coast. If you've been trying to body-board in the ocean, you know how hard a 2 meter (6 foot) wave can slam you. To state the obvious, you don't just stand your ground with even this small a wave: water is nearly as dense as your body. The estimated cost of this disaster to Japan as a nation is now in excess of $300 billion.<br />
<br />
That sounds unimaginable. However, a Cascadia Subduction event is a very real, in fact inevitable, likelihood for the Pacific Northwest.<br />
<br />
<b>What will happen when this inexorable event occurs?</b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #741b47;">The coast will lurch westward 20 meters (60 feet)... <b><i>and remain there permanently</i></b>.</span><br />
<span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #741b47;">The coast will drop down on average 2 meters (6 feet).<b><i>.. and the low-lying parts will remain sunken permanently.</i></b></span><br />
<span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #741b47;">A tsunami up to 40 meters (130 feet) tall will strike coastal communities in as little as 15 minutes from the onset of the first shaking.</span><br />
<span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #741b47;">There will be fires that are unstoppable - because gas mains and water mains will both be ruptured. The 1906 earthquake in San Francisco was over in probably less than 3 minutes... but the fires that destroyed nearly ALL of San Francisco raged for four days afterwards. The fire department at the time was helpless. </span><br />
<span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span><span style="color: #741b47;">In the Pacific Northwest, emergency planners have estimated that 10,000 people will die, and another 30,000 people will be seriously injured.</span><br />
<span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #741b47;">The closer to the epicenter - a broad north-south line just off and beneath the coast - the greater the damage. The farther east you live, the greater the attenuation of the energy released by a CSZ event. Attenuation means the Earth's crust in between the fault and, say, Yakima, Washington, will absorb most of the radiating seismic energy. </span><br />
<span style="color: #741b47;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #741b47;">But first, the ground will first jerk westward, then begin going up and down and sideways, then begin rolling. This will go on for 4 - 6 minutes...</span><br />
<br />
It will definitely wake you up. From experience, I can tell you that it seems to go on forever.<br />
<br />
<b>How often does Cascadia's fault rupture?</b> An early study of bouma sequences (mud layering in deep-ocean coring) suggested 7 events in the past 3,500 years, but a recent report by Oregon State University suggests that the average time between major earthquake events may be as little as every 240 years. When was the last one?<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #cc0000;">January 1700 AD</span>.<br />
<br />
This event gave rise to the Orphan Tsunami in Japan, so-called because there was no felt earthquake nor approaching typhoon to provide warning before enormous waves suddenly appeared and obliterated or damaged many fishing villages along the Sendai coast. That's over 300 years ago. This is somewhat simplified, of course, because the CSZ cannot really be treated as a single entity that always behaves along its entire length the same way. Detailed geologic mapping, in fact, suggests that there are sometimes separate ruptures along the "northern zone" and the "southern zone"... 'mere' magnitude 8.5 events.<br />
<br />
But make no mistake: while a magnitude 8+ event may feel different from a magnitude 9.0 full-rip event (lasting "only" 4-5 minutes instead of 6), there will still be widespread damage.<br />
<br />
The event spacing (the average of 240 years vs. the current hiatus of 315 years) suggests we are then "overdue", doesn't it? Not necessarily, because the spacing between previous events has been as much as 500 years. Earthquakes do not click along like clocks. <b><i><span style="color: #990000;">In fact, we cannot predict earthquakes</span></i></b> unless we are injecting water into wells in a tectonic region like the area north of Denver, CO. For all large earthquakes, despite upwards of $100 billion spent on research over the past century, the best minds I personally know unequivocally say that current science cannot predict when an earthquake will happen.<br />
<br />
But <b><i><span style="color: #990000;">scientists can <u>forecast</u> major earthquakes</span></i></b>. That's a very different thing than a <i><span style="color: #cc0000;">prediction</span></i>. This means that scientists can say, based on existing data, that there is a 40% chance of another Cascadia event in the next 50 years. So... less than a 1% chance in the next year. Buy earthquake insurance or not?<br />
<br />
<b>What can that plausibly mean to you - realistically, practically? What can you possibly do with this information?</b><br />
<br />
First, scientists CAN make reasonable estimates of what will happen during and after a Cascadia event, and you and I CAN prepare for those. This is going on right now in local and state organizations in the Pacific Northwest. Infrastructure is being examined with an eye towards what can be reinforced. Building codes have already been upgraded - then upgraded again - to help us create new roads, bridges, and buildings that will better survive such an event. There are estimates in Oregon, for instance, that a majority of bridges will be compromised or fail on coastal US Highway 101, and at least five bridges on inland interstate I-5 will fail in Oregon alone. The damage will be worse the closer one is to the coast, but in both instances it takes just one bridge in a strategic location to shut down interstate commerce. Don't count on being able to find food on the shelves of your local supermarket for awhile... or even count on being able to GET to your supermarket. Repairs to powerlines, gas lines, roads, bridges, etc. will take time. They will happen sooner inland, and take longer in the coastal communities.<br />
<br />
This means you should have at least 2 - 4 weeks worth of non-perishable food for each adult in your household. You should have at least two gallons of water, <b><i>per day, per adult</i></b>, enough to last you that whole time. A majority of people planning for a disaster forget about the water part - it's raining all the time in the "Pacific NorthWet", isn't it? You should also have batteries - LOTS of batteries. A hand-crank radio will be very helpful, perhaps a lifeline.<br />
<br />
Most important of all, you need to have a family plan for dealing with this - or any other catastrophe. In the short term, only you can help your family and your neighbors. It will take awhile for the country as a whole to martial the necessary resources to even partially help.<br />
<br />
If the example of Hurricane Katrina can be used, yes, we <i>will</i> recover. However, the recovery effort will consume much of the region's GDP, and it may be more than a decade before everything is running as smoothly as before the event. New Orleans and Memphis, TN, had similar economic output in 2005. Today New Orleans still has not caught up with Memphis.<br />
<br />
We will survive. We will rebuild. We will be toast only if we refuse to do anything.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br /></div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-30589139135578603122015-10-23T22:05:00.002-07:002015-10-23T22:10:40.760-07:00Why do I Need a Geologist to Build my Deck?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Most of what the geoscience community does is profoundly practical. As you cross any bridge, enter any building, you have a professional geologist or engineering geologist to thank for the fact that you are safe there. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: I would like to extend (cantilever) my deck over
my back slope. I am told by construction contractor that I will need a
geologist to determine type of bedrock and/or soil and determine the depth
required for installment of support piers (caissons) to support deck structure.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;"> Do I need to hire only a geologist for determining whether
hillside slope will support a deck?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Walter H</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Laws and codes are different for different cities and in
different states, and are different for flat or hilly ground, hurricane-, tornado-, or earthquake-prone terrains, so I cannot
directly answer this question. Some states require assessments by someone who
has passed qualifying tests, and can designate "PG" (for professional
geologist) after their name. Some states require an engineering geologist to do
this sort of job. These people basically provide crucial experience and data to ensure conformance with local building codes. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> I can indirectly answer your question by sharing my own
experience, which may or may not be relevant. I chose a home with a great territorial
view. The price I must pay for this view is that the home is built on a slope,
of course. Any slope - especially something graded within the past 20-50 years
and not already covered with semi-mature trees, is inherently unstable. For
instance, after just ten years I had to pay for a rock retaining wall to be
built at the bottom of my back yard/slope - because the soil was slowly
creeping downward and had already buried my neighbor's fence 20 cm deep. In
this area there are known/mapped slow or creeping landslides, also. On one
public trail that I often walk, you can see hundreds of trees that are bent
almost horizontal at the base, and then curve to vertical as they go up - a
sure sign of a slow or creeping landslide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> As part of the negotiation for my new house, the company
selling it agreed to build a deck in the back. The distance from my bedroom door to the
ground at that time was about 15 meters. That's a long first step if you are
sleep-walking, so local building code had required the outside of the door to
be boarded. I had no idea what the real costs of the final deck were, but an
engineer came twice to my door and apologized. First, that he would have to
make it wider than my realtor had suggested - to meet code. Second, he would
have to connect each of three decks by stairs - to meet code. It had to serve
as a fire escape suitable for children. Then an excavator came in and dug a
2-meter-deep trench, a meter wide and the width of my house, behind the house.
They set up molds and brought in a monster machine that looked like a
Snuffelupagus, and poured 5 concrete cylinders a meter wide and 2 meters tall
each. These were even more deeper anchored with some kind of rebar to about 3
meters below ground surface. They brought in a small grader that covered/filled
in the trench. To the imposing concrete pylons they bolt-anchored five
pressure-treated beams (several of them 15 meters long!). THEN they began
building the deck. When I asked the builder why so much precaution (it seemed
like massive over-kill to me), he said that building ANY deck on ANY slope was
fraught with problems, and from experience this was the MINIMUM precautions
they must take. These precautions were built right into the building code. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> “Precautions against what?" I asked.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> "Against your deck joining your neighbor's party," was the reply.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> In the 12 years since the deck was built (it
remains stable) I have seen several things including the bent trees and my own
sliding lower backyard slope that convince me he was correct. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> So much for my theory that I could get away with a couple of
cinder blocks with some posts standing on them and do it myself. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-68052352173842316482015-10-03T21:06:00.000-07:002015-10-03T21:06:00.037-07:00Gold and Lava<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
This ask-a-Geologist query began as a science fiction writer trying to make his novel more realistic. His original question was framed around a scene where gold is mixed in a lava flow. Barring the obvious difficulties of how you would (a) concentrate and refine the gold and (b) why would you want to play with gold in a lava flow in the first place... <br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: Does the gold just melt completely away? Would It sink?
Would it meld into the Lava and you couldn't tell the different between the
two? Would it rest on top and be visibly different? I'm writing a story and I
want to be as scientifically accurate as possible. And considering I don't know
what happens when Molten Lava touches a refined Precious metal. I thought i
would ask. </b></span></div>
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>
</b></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>– Jeremy A</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A: To start with, your hypothesis is a
long way removed from any possible reality. This is because gold is rarely
found in nature in a form larger than tiny flakes. The rare nugget found in
Alaska is just that: extremely rare, and secondary at that (i.e., the nugget is
not the original form). </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If you want
to modify your story to deal with a refined gold artifact, the following may be
helpful:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The melting
temperature of pure, refined gold is 1064 °C. By comparison, the melting point
of magma is in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C - depending on its silica content.
Gold is also extremely conductive, both electrically and thermally. Gold will
thus tend to conduct heat through it very efficiently. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The density
of pure refined gold is quite high: 19.3 g/cc. A typical magma might range in
density from 2.4 g/cc to 3.35 g/cc - again depending on silica content. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>From these,
I can suggest two possible scenarios:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. If a refined gold object is set on an active flow
down-range from Kilauea/Pu'u O'o (on the Big Island, Hawai'i), it will
initially start to sink into the magma. Experience has shown (including my
personal experience) that magma exposed to air quickly forms a crust and
hardens inward - rapidly - from that crust. I've personally walked over active
toes of magma flows there, because it was already crusting over. And yes, it was still rough on my boot-soles, but mainly because the crust is really mostly glass. Under these very specific circumstances, the gold
object would end up being locked, partially sunk, in the cooling magma crust. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. In another possible scenario, the refined gold object
might be thrown into an active lava tube (look at the photo in the upper right
of this link: https://profile.usgs.gov/jwynn for an example of a skylight
broken into a lava tube). In this case, the magma temperature is in the 1200 -
1300 °C range, and the gold object would first sink, then slowly turn liquid and
begin to disperse in the magma as it continues down the lava tube. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hope this helps your book be a bit more realistic.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
~~~~~</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<br />
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-68358298335045281392015-09-19T20:36:00.000-07:002015-09-19T20:36:00.148-07:00Age of the Earth in a Nutshell<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--><br />
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="267">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";}
</style>
<![endif]-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: In geology class my professor told me that the earth's age
is based of off meters how does this work</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Thanks for your help </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>- Theo</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A: <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
<w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>
<w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent>
<w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>
<w:DoNotPromoteQF/>
<w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther>
<w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian>
<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
<w:Compatibility>
<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
<w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/>
<w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/>
<w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/>
<w:OverrideTableStyleHps/>
</w:Compatibility>
<m:mathPr>
<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
<m:brkBin m:val="before"/>
<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
<m:lMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99"
LatentStyleCount="267">
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";}
</style>
<![endif]-->
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The age of the Earth was initially estimated by scientists by mapping
stacks of sedimentary rocks in the UK, then measuring sedimentation rates in similar environments (lakes, rivers, seashore, etc.). In the 19th
Century this initially gave startling - even shocking at the time - estimates in the
hundreds of millions of years range. In the early 20th Century radioisotopes
became available, and these were used to extend the age of the Earth into the
billions (billion = thousand million) of years age range*. This physically meant measuring back
to the point in time when the mineral hosting the radioisotopes and their
daughter-products was last melted. THEN it just became a game of searching all
over the Earth for the oldest date-able minerals with uranium and lead in them
(for example, a zircon crystal). The oldest rocks found so far are in Greenland and
western Australia, and based on these the Earth's age is estimated to be at
least 4.55 thousand million years old. This means it is at LEAST that
old.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
* Note that in some countries like the US, the word
"billion" means a thousand million, while in other countries (e.g.,
the UK), the word "billion" means a million million.</div>
<br /></div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-79244530398745102462015-09-14T20:46:00.001-07:002015-09-14T20:46:16.873-07:00Paleomagnetism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Paleomagnetism = old + magnetism<br />
It's the study of magnetic signatures in ancient rocks, and what they can tell us about the Earth long ago. This requires drilling out little core samples from rock outcrops, carefully marking them for orientation, then back in a laboratory measuring the orientation of the remnant magnetic field that comes from just the rock itself. <br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Q: Could you tell me what factors they looked at to determine
that the north pole moved.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
My book says it left markers but i couldn't find what
markers it was referring to.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
- Theo</div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
A: There are magnetic minerals in most non-sedimentary rocks
including, most commonly, magnetite. Each individual iron-containing mineral crystal grain has a magnetic
moment - sort of like a tiny bar magnet - frozen in the orientation direction
of the Earth's magnetic field at the time that the mineral solidified out of
its original melt. This is called remnant magnetization. In an unweathered
igneous rock, these tiny magnetic domains (if there are magnetic minerals in the rock) will
all align in the same direction as the Earth's field. A fluxgate magnetometer can be used in the field to orient the sensor until it aligns with the rock's internal magnetic field. Geologists can use these to tell the difference between apparently similar volcanic flows in the field, just by the different remnant magnetic fields in the different flows. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a sedimentary rock
these magnetic domains will usually be randomly oriented, because the mineral grains have been jumble up as they were wind blown or washed down a stream. </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The geology sub-field of paleomagnetism is the study of how
these orientations can depict the Earth's magnetic field at times in the past -
but of course this means that you must also be able to <i><b>date</b></i> the rocks. After more
than a half century of gathering data, paleomagnetic specialists can say
definitively that there have been magnetic epochs when the Earth's magnetic
poles were oriented just like it is now - and epochs when the magnetic field orientation has been reversed. Of
intense interest in the geoscience world right now is refining the dating part, in
order to see how *fast* the Earth's magnetic field orientation changes or flips over when it does. Does the orientation of the magnetic field flip overnight, or does it take 100,000 years? The difference is important.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During that switch-over time, our planet doesn't
have the magnetic protection from energetic charged particles from the Sun like
it normally does (these charged particles being deflected by the Earth's magnetic field are what creates the auroras). The implication here is
that there will be a lot more radiation damage to creatures living on the Earth's
surface during a magnetic pole switch-over transition time. The next implication: perhaps this equates with (a) a
jump in biological diversity, and/or (b) a dying off of some species. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
~~~~~</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-27879848169831251882015-06-12T15:44:00.000-07:002015-06-12T15:44:00.066-07:00Porosity in Sandstone and Carbonate Rocks <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Q: Dear Sir, I would like to ask what are the classification of porosity in carbonate rocks?<br />
- Tarek M<br />
<br />
A: Carbonate rock porosity is a very big issue in the oil and gas world – perhaps THE issue. Water, gas, and oil must be able to move through the rocks or there is no oil and gas business. The nature of porosity in a source or reservoir rock can make all the difference in whether the hydrocarbons can be formed in the first place, and later economically extracted or not. Basically, can the oil mature and be concentrated in the first place – and if so, can it later then be extracted?<br />
<br />
Here are some links that might help answer this for you:<br />
<a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1994/4013/report.pdf">http://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1994/4013/report.pdf</a><br />
<a href="http://www.slb.com/services/technical_challenges/carbonates/near_wellbore/rock_properties.aspx">http://www.slb.com/services/technical_challenges/carbonates/near_wellbore/rock_properties.aspx</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity</a><br />
<a href="http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/2004/mazzullo/images/mazzullo">http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/2004/mazzullo/images/mazzullo</a><br />
<br />
By comparison, sandstone porosity is pretty simple: it consists primarily of inter-grain spaces.<br />
<br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>For carbonates (e.g., limestones and dolomites) however, porosity evolves with time and can be quite complex. Porosity in carbonate rocks is thus usually classified on the basis of the timing of the porosity: how the porosity changes and develops over time. Perhaps surprisingly, porosity often evolves over time. First, there is primary or depositional porosity, in which the pores are inherent in the newly deposited sediments and the particles that make them up. These pore types include inter-particle pores in carbonate sands (muddy or otherwise), and intra-particle pores (i.e., small passageways within tiny fossils such as foraminifera). Another pore type is fenestral: these are pores formed by gas bubbles and sediment shrinkage in tidal-flat carbonates, and also the growth-framework or structural pores common in reef buildups. <br />
<br />
In carbonate rocks (as opposed to sandstone) you can also have secondary pores – in other words pores that form as a result of later, generally post-depositional dissolution of certain constituent minerals. You can also have vugs: large pores that cut across the rock fabric. This means that the dissolution has not been controlled or driven by the fabric of the original deposition. Incidentally, you can also have pores that are basically dissolution-enlarged fractures. The natural tendency in most carbonate sediments is to for groundwater to cement in and overlying rock pressure to compact the pores during post-depositional burial. Most geologists believe that the bulk of the porosity in limestone and dolomite reservoirs is secondary in origin: post depositional, in other words.<br />
<br />
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Keep in mind in this discussion that carbonates and sandstones are discrete members of what is usually a continuum of rocks types in a stack of sediments. One can encounter sandstones, limestones, anhydrites, shales, and dolomite in relatively close proximity in a sedimentary package.<br />
<br /></div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-48021301092161497762015-06-06T17:03:00.000-07:002015-06-06T17:03:00.453-07:00Hey! A Sedimentary Rock Looks Like an Igneous Rock!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: I encountered a sedimentary rock in lab called Greywacke
and it reminded me of an igneous rock, Gabbro. How does one differentiate these
2 apart? Or basically igneous from sedimentary and vice versa. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Feiruz R</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
A: Igneous rocks were formed when the material was a melt,
so the individual mineral grains are tightly fused and intergrown, and the porosity in the
rock is very low. A greywacke was formed by accumulation of cold, weathered
detrital material. It might superficially LOOK like an igneous rock, but a
porosity test would give it away immediately. A closer examination with a
hand-lens will show angular grains in a greywacke that do not interlock
seamlessly; the word "greywacke" means that this rock also includes
very fine silt, so this tends to fill those inter-grain boundaries between the
larger crystals - but with a hand-lens you can see this. A petrographic
microscope makes it even more obvious that a greywacke is really a garbage can term, representing an accumulation of weathered material of all
different grain sizes. <o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-22967310010697366412015-05-30T16:46:00.000-07:002015-05-30T16:46:00.041-07:00Oxygen and Mcrobes and Algae and the Early Earth<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Hi! <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Oxygen in our atmosphere was created by small creatures who
had just invented a new process:
photosynthesis.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">The waste product of photosynthesis is oxygen.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">After an unfathomable number of years, too much O2 built up in the
atmosphere, changing the greenhouse gas, methane, into carbon dioxide, which
isn’t such a strong greenhouse gas. This
caused the earth to cool off to the point where the first known ice age began,
the huronic, I think. It lasted for
millions of years and enveloped the entire earth with ice.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Question 1: how did these photosynthetic creatures survive
in an iced-over earth?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Question 2: what caused the end of this very long ice age?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;"> Just curious - Thank
you!<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;"> - Susan K<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A: Your question suggests you are well along in studying
this topic. I've stored a number of closely related questions and
answers on this blog, and by way of a long answer, some of these may help:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
http://askageologist.blogspot.com/2013/07/climate-change-is-it-real.html<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
http://askageologist.blogspot.com/2013/04/castastrophes-and-mass-extinctions.html<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
http://askageologist.blogspot.com/2012/06/snowball-earth-faint-young-sun-paradox.html<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The medium-length answer: Our atmosphere passed
through the oxygenation transition around 2.5 billion years ago, and it
certainly involved photosynthesis - stromatolites (fossil algal clumps) have been found
dating as far back as 3.3 billion years. However, there are also suggestions that
mantle outgassing, tectonics, and oceanic current-shifts may have contributed.
There really was a Snowball Earth episode, and there have been a series of cold-warm cycles
since then. Scientists have been exploring - with limited data - what could
have caused these events, and suggestions range from the fairly mundane to the
exotic: asteroid impact, tectonic change that interrupted oceanic current
flows, etc. The Chicxulub asteroid event 65 million years ago certainly knocked
the oxygen levels in the atmosphere down dramatically, requiring millions of
years to recover. This is almost certainly why bar-headed geese can easily fly
over Mount Everest: birds have evolved a truly advanced respiratory system since that event.
Evolution is well-documented to speed up under environmental stress.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Some short answers:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. If there is one thing certain about microbial life, it is
that it can survive almost anything. Microbes have been found kilometers deep
in the Earth, and temperatures steadily increase with depth due to radio-isotope decay in the Mantle and Core of the Earth (the temperature rises to typically 60 C at 4,000 meters depth).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. There are a lot of variables that may have been involved
in the recurring cool-warming cycles, including the fact that the Sun has
steadily grown in luminosity during its lifetime, as well as tectonics, and
methane-emitting life forms. Likely a combination of these - and probably other
factors - led to out-of-control feedback loops that dead-ended in climate
extremes before the atmosphere eventually recovered. <o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-80676011149224726222015-05-23T16:31:00.000-07:002015-05-23T16:31:57.686-07:00Damage Earthquakes Cause<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: What kind of damage can a(n) earthquake do?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Carrera K</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A: Earthquake damage can be very wide-ranging. In increasing
order of destructiveness (roughly following magnitudes from M ~4 to M ~ 8) :<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. Small cracks form in drywall, stucco, and concrete walls
of buildings.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. Fragments of building fall into the surrounding streets -
glass, or bricks from the corners of windows, etc. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. Topographic settling, leading to serious internal
structural damage in buildings, making them uninhabitable (San Francisco, Loma
Prieta earthquake, 1979).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4. Large fractures form in soils and rocks. Water towers
fail. Electric power is cut and gas lines rupture (White Wolf Fault,
Bakersfield, CA, 1952). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5. Major fires start that are difficult or impossible to
control (San Francisco, 1906 AD). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6. Collapse of concrete floors in buildings, crushing most
of what lies within (Izmir, Turkey, 1999 and 2013).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7. Major infrastructure collapse, leading to water-borne
diseases, and starvation happens on a wide scale (Haiti, 2010). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8. Tsunamis wreak broad damage to coastlines, killing most
people within reach of the water (Aceh, Indonesia, 2004). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9. Allocthons and major landslides cover or sweep inhabited
regions. Segments of coastline drop below sea level (Puget Sound, 1700 AD), and
rivers temporarily reverse direction (Mississippi River, 1811).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
10. Entire civilizations collapse and do not recover (the
Minoan civilization, 1,500 BC, though how much was explosive volcanism and how much was caused by earthquake damage is unclear). <o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-60038932139410826002015-04-19T19:04:00.000-07:002015-04-19T19:04:36.600-07:00Ethics & Conflicts of Interest - No Private Work in Minerals<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
This Q&A actually raises an important issue, which at its core involves ethics, and conflicts of interest in science. The US Geological Survey was established in 1879, but an important event in 1871-72 led to its creation. An unscrupulous Kentucky con man tried to sell a worthless mining property to some gullible investors in San Francisco. After he staked a claim on federal land, he “salted” the property with rough diamonds that he had apparently stolen from a drill-bit manufacturer that had employed him. He apparently thought that he could fool some greedy investors who would not look beyond the few diamonds and other rough gems that they saw at the surface. The investors were nearly taken to the cleaners, and the con man eventually made off with what in today’s money would be $8 million.<br />
<br />
However, a young, Yale-educated geologist named Clarence King had been funded by Congress to assess the huge federal lands that Congress had responsibility for in the Western United States. King was aware of the news of the “great discovery” – actually one of a long list of scams and get-rich schemes common at the time in what was truly a Wild Wild West. Putting two and two together from the partial information the con man had released, King and his party located the claims in a remote part of Colorado. It didn’t take long to tick off the obvious evidence (diamonds were only found at the surface where there were already footprints, and none were found below in trenches that they dug to test the local soils, etc.). As their field investigation concluded, King and his party discovered that they had been spied on for days by a New York diamond dealer who had secretly followed them and who had been watching with a telescope from a nearby butte. When someone from the party blurted out that the discovery was a giant hoax, this man exclaimed “What a chance to sell short on the stock!” Stung at hearing of this obviously unethical plan, King raced back to San Francisco to beat him, and informed the wealthy investors about what had been going on. He was greeted as a savior. The San Francisco Bulletin wrote <b><i>“Fortunately for the good name of San Francisco and the State, there was one cool-headed man of scientific education who esteemed it his duty to investigate the matter in the only right way.”</i></b><br />
<br />
Read more here: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-great-diamond-hoax-of-1872-2630188/#wt4lHMrIiH1XwdM7.99<br />
<br />
In part because of this success, in 1879 King became the first Director of the newly-formed US Geological Survey. From the very beginning, ethics and integrity were built into its policy and operation. Today a USGS employee and even family members are not permitted to hold stocks or any other interest in a natural resource or a related company. It’s not a great reach beyond this to ensure that no federal employee uses skills and facilities to help a private individual while on the tax payers payroll. At the core of the USGS Fundamental Science Practices policy we find these words “The scientific reputation of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) for excellence, integrity, and objectivity is one of the Bureau’s most important assets. This reputation for reliable science brings authority to data and findings, creates and protects long-term credibility, and ensures that the public trust is met.” (May 24, 2006). I find great personal satisfaction in belonging to an organization that treats integrity and excellence as its most valuable assets.<br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: I know u probably get this alot. My name is arial. I am sure i found a precious gem deposit in georgia. I know that if it is this is an incredible find. I cannot find anyone who can or will test the stones. I have done all the research and i do have possion of the stones. I removed them feom the rock myself. If u are interested in the least bit i can show u the samples and the location from where they came. Thank you</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">-<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Arial L</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: I am so sorry, but my volunteer work for Ask-a-Geologist prohibits me from getting involved in anything like a private gemstone or mine evaluation. It's actually built into the Organic Law which started the US Geological Survey in 1879 - I would be breaking that federal law. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #990000;">Our work here is closely guided by specific Congressional mandates (for instance in my office we monitor potentially active volcanoes), and we are not supposed to do anything outside our mandate. We are very much aware that the US taxpayer is paying for what we do, and we try very hard to be as efficient and careful as possible with that trust. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #990000;">We are ESPECIALLY prohibited from doing ANYTHING that could possibly be construed at helping a single individual or group of individuals with a mineral deposit, or in a way that could financially benefit an individual or group of individuals. This is viewed as using taxpayer funds to promote something for someone other than the country as a whole - a form of corruption. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #990000;">My recommendation is that you contact the Georgia Geological Survey (note the mineral resource maps in this link: http://epd.georgia.gov/georgia-geologic-survey-maps), or talk with a member of the department of geology at the University of Georgia or Georgia State University. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #990000;">Sorry I can't be of more help than this.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Avtually uve helped alot by letting me know who to contact thank you. Ariel</span></b><br />
<br /></div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-86763167220173922032015-04-10T17:00:00.000-07:002015-04-10T17:00:06.783-07:00Will The Plate We Live On Sink? More Tectonics Questions.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Dear Geologist, we are students from the Schiller Gynasium in Berlin and we would like to ask you some questions about platetectonics.</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Emma and Lili K</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Hi, Emma and Lili,</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">My grandmother and her family came from Bavaria (Goggingen/Augsburg), so I have a soft place in my heart for Germany. I'll try to answer your questions in order below: </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Is it possible that the plates we live on are going to sink?</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: The plates we live on will not sink. They have a higher silica content than the Earth as a whole and are thus less dense (average density of 2.67 grams/cc), so they float on the denser Mantle material. The plates that DO sink during subduction tectonics are ocean floor segments. These plates are made of injected Mantle material that comes in at ocean floor spreading centers like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This material has more iron, magnesium, and calcium, so it is usually more dense (average density about 3.2 grams/cc or even higher). When these ocean floor segments meet continental crust in normal plate tectonic collisions, the ocean floor segment is usually - but not always – over-ridden. There are rare instances where segments of oceanic crust are rafted onto continental margins by this messy collision process, and these are called </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiolite"><span style="color: blue;"><b>ophiolites</b></span></a><span style="color: #990000;">. Examples are in Cyprus (the Troodos ophiolite), Oman (the Semail Ophiolite) and northern California, USA (the Josephine Complex). These ophioloites are fascinating to study, and often host pods of dense chromite (more than 7 grams/cc) in them. A chromite pod the size of a large room may be worth over a million dollars/euros.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Can the mantle and the outer core mix (as they are both liquid)?</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: The Mantle and outer Core are indeed liquid according to seismic refraction studies, but they have already been largely segregated by gravity over the last 4 billion years or so. If there is mixing, it is local in nature. Some laboratory studies and modeling suggest that the outer core is actually growing, as the gravity segregation apparently is still continuing. </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Would it be possible that the pangea forms again?</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Yes, it is possible to have another super-continent like </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea"><b><span style="color: blue;">Pangaea</span></b></a><span style="color: #990000;">, as the Pacific continues to narrow on almost all margins. However, it will take hundreds of millions of years to accomplish this. It will likely not be a clean recombination, but more likely a complex amalgamation of crustal segments and fragments. The Atlantic opened up once before, then closed again, and then opened again a second time. It is now widening at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, so the Atlantic grows while the Pacific narrows. As the history of the Atlantic Ocean shows, this may change at any time in the future.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Thank you for taking time to read our e-mail!</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: I'm glad to help. You will perhaps be the next generation of Earth scientists, and discover things that we don't know about today. </span><br />
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-34261277604086204082015-04-03T17:00:00.000-07:002015-04-03T17:00:05.011-07:00Ever Been in an Earthquake?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Have you ever been in a earthquake</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">--Gretchen H</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Yes, I have "been in a earthquake". As a 6-year-old I was thrown out of my bed by a M=7.2 earthquake in Bakersfield, CA, that hit at 3:30 in the morning. My Mom told me later that she called to me to come to her bedroom down the hallway, and that I answered her <b><i>"I can't. The walls keep hitting me."</i></b> These were probably the manifestation of Raleigh or surface waves rolling through the ground beneath the house. I do remember standing in the grass outside the house later and listening to sirens until dawn, as the adults talked about what had happened. That's where I first heard the word "earthquake."</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"> I also felt several earthquakes when I lived for three years in southern Venezuela. One event frightened the other residents of our apartment building so much that they all ran down the stairwell and stood in the street outside.</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"> You have to be physically in contact with the ground to feel small earthquakes. If you are driving a car or sleeping in a soft bed you may not feel events up to a magnitude of 3 or 4. </span><br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<div>
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: Thanks so much for answering my question. I bet it felt very scary in the earthquake.</b></span></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<span style="color: #990000;">A: The experience wasn't so scary as it was a sleepy mind trying to figure out what was going on. That part took me awhile as a six-year-old. Then it was just sort of being amazed and listening to adults try to explain it as THEY were figuring it out. I remember my Mom, being very frightened, going down into a darkened basement to shut off the natural gas. I felt her fear then, my first fear, mainly for her. </span></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-84966895576977953742015-03-27T17:00:00.000-07:002015-03-27T17:00:02.052-07:00How Many Earthquakes in a Week- and the Meaning of Life<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The question was typical. The follow-up question was definitely NOT.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>Q: Hey I'm wondering how many earthquakes occur every week ?
And how powerful they are......<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #38761d;"><b>--Rossy K</b></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: The answer to your
question depends on how BIG the earthquakes are that you are talking about. The
smaller the earthquake, the more common they are. This means that there are
probably many undetected (very small) earthquakes happening around the world
every second. This also means that the really big ones - the ones that get in
the news - are not very common at all. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> The US Geological
Survey estimates that several million detectable earthquakes occur in the world
each year. Many go undetected because they originate in remote areas or they
have very small magnitudes. The National Earthquake Information Center now
locates about 50 earthquakes each day, or about 20,000 a year, worldwide. They
have to be above a certain minimum threshold before an effort is made to even
try to locate them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> There are far
fewer large events than small earthquakes, and this table will show you how
these are parsed out according to magnitude:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="color: #990000;">Magnitude Average Annually<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">8 and higher 1 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">7 - 7.9 15
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">6 - 6.9 134 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">5 - 5.9 1319
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">4 - 4.9 13,000 (estimated) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">3 - 3.9 130,000
(estimated) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">2 - 2.9 1,300,000
(estimated)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> I would recommend
that you visit this web-page:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/year/eqstats.php<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"> There are lots of
interesting statistics here.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
*************<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: What’s the meaning of life?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">--Rossy K</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Ask your parents, and they will give you a start on
answering that question. I just answer questions about geology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">On average you have upwards of 70 more years to figure this
out yourself. That's pretty much the whole point of your being on this planet. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-27415194788215919312015-03-20T17:00:00.000-07:002015-03-27T21:20:31.071-07:00Is Your Job Dangerous?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="color: #274e13;"><b>Q: For a school assignment, I was told to ask a geologist some questions that I have about volcanoes. Is your job dangerous?</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #274e13;"><b>- Malayah M</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: It CAN be dangerous. I've walked out the toe of an evolving flow from Kilauea volcano, and accidentally stepped directly on the magma several times. It damaged my boots. Most volcanologists I know are or were personally acquainted with people who are now dead - killed by a volcanic eruption. These deaths usually involved a silica-rich volcano that exploded violently. They were visiting during a time of volcanic unrest, and the explosion happened so fast that it didn't give them time to get far enough away. This type of high-silica volcano tends to form stratocones, so you have an idea of its potential to cause great destruction just by looking at it. Think: Mount Fuji in Japan. Avachinskiy in Kamchatka. Mount St Helens in the United States (it was a nice cone before 1980).</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span><span style="color: #990000;">As a result, the volcanolgists still living, whom I personally work with, have become very careful and cautious. They don't take unnecessary risks - but being a volcanologist almost by definition means you must take SOME risks. </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: What do you do when a volcano is showing restless activity, and you have predicted that it will erupt soon?</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: We notify public safety authorities at the first reliable hint that something might happen. We make it a practice to drill with them and review the possible things that can happen, ahead of time. When Mount St Helens erupted in 2004-2008 the interaction between the USGS volcanologists and the federal, state, and county safety authorities was almost seamless.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: Have you ever witnessed a volcano eruption??</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Several times I've witnessed a volcanic eruption:</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- Mutnovskiy volcano in Kamchatka erupted as I was inside the main caldera in 2004. Fortunately it was a mild eruption, but the Russians with us gave us no warning (I don't think they had realized what was happening before we did). </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- Kilauea has been erupting continuously since 1983, and I have visited the flow-front a number of times. There is an interesting photo here: https://profile.usgs.gov/jwynn - look in the upper right-hand corner.</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- I was the first person to see and photograph the new dacite dome coming up from under the glacier at Mount St Helens on October 12, 2004. I was orbiting in a helicopter inside the crater at the time. </span><br />
<br />
<div>
</div>
<br />
<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: auto; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 1; word-spacing: 0px;">
<span style="color: #990000;">- In addition, I've been on several restless volcanoes that were showing activity like fumeroles (Mount Lassen, in California, Akutan in the Aleutian Chain, etc.).</span></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-70350864769520189562015-03-13T17:00:00.000-07:002015-03-13T17:00:00.206-07:00More About Volcanoes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #134f5c;">Here are some more questions from the precocious Cadee, this time about volcanoes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: I am in 6th grade, and we are learning about volcanoes. I've
been assigned to ask you some questions about volcanoes. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Question: How many estimated volcanoes are in the world?</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">- Cadee C</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: The Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program
maintains a database that currently contains 1,562 volcanoes with eruptions
during the Holocene period (approximately the last 10,000 years) or which are
currently exhibiting any kind of unrest. There are many, MANY more volcanoes on
the planet than that - they are just older. I have mapped volcanoes in Mexico
that are at least 100 million years old, and I have mapped volcanoes in
Venezuela that are at least 3 BILLION years old. In my office I have a piece of
Mount St Helens volcano that was semi-liquid and oozing as red-hot magma just 9
years ago. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Making matters even more complicated is the question of what
IS a volcano? When I served a 5-year assignment as the chief scientist for volcano hazards of the US
Geological Survey, I asked one of my senior scientists to do a compilation of
the Pacific Cascades. I thought he would come up with a list of 15 - 20
volcanoes - the recognizable peaks like Mt. Hood and Mt. Rainier. His final
list had over 3,500 entries - he counted every small separate cinder cone and
dike. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: Are there warnings before a volcano erupts?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Yes, in almost all cases if there are an adequate number of
telemetered instruments nearby. Generally we first see the mountain swelling as
magma starts to come up into the edifice from below. We "see" this
generally with telemetered GPS networks or with satellite radar data (InSAR).
Later, as the eruption gets closer in time, we start detecting magmatic gases
like H<span style="font-size: x-small;">2</span>S (smells like burnt matches), and we begin to detect small earthquakes
whose signatures tells us that rocks are being broken below the volcano. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">You can't predict an earthquake, but you CAN predict a
volcanic eruption if you have enough instrumentation in place on or near it.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: Where do volcanoes usually form?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: The vast majority of volcanoes can be found near and along
tectonic plate margins - like the so-called Ring of Fire around the Pacific
Basin. Some are harder to explain, except as hot spots that tectonic plates are
drifting over, such as the Hawai'i chain. Some countries exist on Island Arcs
- the entire land is made up of active volcanoes, like Iceland and Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: How do some volcanoes change over time?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: If magma moves up into a reservoir well below the ground
and stays there for a long while, it can differentiate. By this I mean that
crystals start to form, and the heavier ones drift to the bottom of the magma
chamber. When the volcano erupts, the less dense material (the lighter-colored
stuff with higher silica content, such as rhyolite) tends to come out first,
from the top of the reservoir. Later the material from lower down in the
stratified reservoir comes out - this tends to be darker and flows more easily
(basalt). This ends up on top of the lighter, more silica-rich flows. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">This sort of process works until the percentage of crystals rises to the point of the magma becoming a crystal "mush". Then this sort of "flow easily stuff" does NOT flow more easily.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Some volcanoes change over time because they get different
magma feeds from the mantle as continents move to different places on the
mantle with plate tectonics. An example like this would be some volcanoes
in the western United States that rather dramatically change in character over long periods of time. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: Are there patterns in volcanic eruptions from the same
volcano?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: Yes, and we count on these patterns to roughly predict the
future behavior of a volcano. This pattern recognition requires very careful
geologic mapping and age-dating of the rocks, as you might imagine, to see what
was erupted and when - and how. This is a rough art still, and volcanologists
are always getting surprises - like when Four Peaks Volcano erupted in the Alaska
Peninsula a few years ago. No one had
any idea that this volcano had ever erupted at all within the previous 10,000
years. We had no instruments close to it, so we had very little warning.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-54892168644273293792015-03-06T17:00:00.000-08:002015-03-06T17:00:00.297-08:00Do You Like Your Job?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="color: #0b5394;">I'm always impressed when young people are already thinking early about a career - instead of growing older and stumbling along through life, wondering how they got where they are. </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: I am in 6th grade, and have been given an assignment to ask you some questions.</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Question: do you like your job?</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">- Cadee C</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: </span><span style="color: #990000;">I absolutely love my job. All of it except the bureaucratic stuff.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: What inspired you to study geology? </span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- I could be a real world detective. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- I could pick up a rock and examine it closely, and understand its history from the clues you or I can see in it.</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- I could work on something that actually helped other human beings live better, live happier. Do you go to school in a bus or a car? Do you read using electric lights? Thank a geologist.</span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: what is your favorite area of study? </span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: All areas. I am interested in the full range of geology, and have published scientific papers in such diverse fields as archeology, astrophysics, and groundwater hydrology. the world is just so full of fascinating things, and I want to study all of them. </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: what is something fascinating you've learned since becoming a geologist?</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">A: </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- How a rock the size of my office, traveling at 10 kilometers per second, can carry so much kinetic energy that it can leave destruction equivalent to an atomic bomb.</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- How water moves slowly underground, and how pollutants from a leaky tank at a service station can move with it and poison whole cities.</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- How gold gets concentrated by natural processes - and how to find it!</span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- How an ocean floor can become volcanic lava. </span><br />
<br />
<b><span style="color: #274e13;">Q: how has the way you study geology changed over time?</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- We use computers very heavily now. We use very sophisticated numerical modeling to understand what is happening under the ground, when we cannot see or detect features otherwise. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- We spend much more of our time doing bureaucratic things that don't have anything to do with our work. These are increasingly required by Congress because some people there don't trust federal employees to work honestly. </span><br />
<span style="color: #990000;">- We have to work harder and smarter to get the same kind of productivity.</span><br />
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-92035645192086378052015-02-27T17:00:00.000-08:002015-02-27T17:00:03.071-08:00Crust? Mantle? Core?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Move over, adult world, here
come the 8<sup>th</sup> graders. They are a LOT smarter than WE were in the 8<sup>th</sup>
grade.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Hello Mr./Mrs. Geologist, I
am sending you this email because I am wondering about something. How can you
be sure about the dimensions of say: the mantle, or the inner core? I am an 8th
grader and I would be very grateful if I was sent a response to this question?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Oliver McE </span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">A: <!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1<![endif]--><!--[if supportFields]><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span><![endif]-->The short answer is
seismology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">The long answer is that when
medium to large earthquakes occur around the Earth, they send a substantial
amount of wave energy through the body of the Earth. Seismologists have learned
how to use a large and sophisticated global network of seismometers to time the
arrivals of many different kinds of waves – and analyze their characteristic
signatures. Some of these waves (specifically S-waves or shear waves) cannot
propagate through liquids. At the same time, P-waves (pressure waves, similar but
lower frequency than the sounds you hear with your ears) will refract, or bend,
as they cross boundaries with different physical properties. Refraction is what
light does as it crosses the air-water boundary in a pool - so fish in a stream
look like they are shallower than they actually are.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">By carefully timing the arrivals
of the different types of waves, seismologists can discern different physical
properties at different depths. Among these, the Crust-Mantle, Mantle-Core, and
Outer Core-Inner Core boundaries stand out very clearly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">The analysis is much more
complicated than this, or course, but it's pretty obvious when S-waves can be
seen up to a certain distance away around the curve of the Earth from the
earthquake source - but not beyond. This means that a solid-liquid boundary has
been crossed. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">Here are some helpful links that
will let you visualize what I'm talking about:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_the_Earth<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">This is a good place to start.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=earth%27s+structure+layers&qpvt=earth%27s+structure+layers&qpvt=earth%27s+structure+layers&FORM=IGRE<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">I got this rather complicated
link by doing a search for "earth's structure layers". <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=seismic%20waves%20diagram&qs=IM&form=QBIR&pq=seismic%20waves&sc=8-13&sp=2&sk=IM1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">I got this by doing a search for
"seismic waves diagram".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">There are other ways that we
geophysicists can "see" different structures inside the Earth,
including <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">2. torsional oscillations of the
Earth in response to very large earthquakes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">3. study of the
Earth's complex dipolar and changing secular magnetic field, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">4. ground-based and
satellite-based gravity and gravity gradient measurements, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">5. mathematical modeling, and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">6. high-pressure,
high-temperature laboratory experiments. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #990000;">The combination of all these approaches taken together has
allowed geophysicists to actually do something called "tomography" -
sort of like a CT-scan or an MRI scan of the human body that doctors use - to
actually see complex details beyond just simple layering in the deep Earth. Taken
together, we are becoming increasingly confident of things like where the down-going oceanic slabs beneath the continents are, and what the minerals – and metals
– at different depth might be. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-59686979141570607282015-02-20T17:00:00.000-08:002015-02-20T17:00:00.372-08:00How deep can earthquakes occur?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="background-color: #cccccc; font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="color: blue;">Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of accumulating strain in the Earth's upper crust or buried fragments thereof. This means that rocks must be breaking for an event to be detected by human beings. However, deep in the Earth's interior, rocks are no longer brittle. With overlying rock pressure and increased heat, they become plastic, so they cannot break. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="background-color: #cccccc; font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Is it possible that earthquake can happen at the inside of
the earth? Like Mantle or outer core, inner core?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="background-color: #cccccc; font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Sarah G</span></b><span style="color: #660000;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: #cccccc;">A: Many things may be theoretically possible, but once
you get below the point of plasticity in the Earth's crust there will be no rock-breaking
earthquakes. This aseismic depth - where rocks deform plastically - varies as a
function of temperature, pressure, and rock constituents. I believe the deepest
earthquakes ever recorded are at around 800 km. These happen along subducted, down-going oceanic crust that is still dragging some of its cooler thermal
regime with it. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: #cccccc;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8611412654092935924.post-47482371778446545332015-02-13T17:00:00.000-08:002015-02-13T17:00:00.181-08:00When an earthquake occurs, is it possible to tell what the aftermath is going to be like? <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="color: blue;">There are earthquakes –
and then there are their aftermaths. After my house stops shaking and I get up
off the floor – assuming I still can – what else will happen?</span><span style="color: #660000;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><b><span style="color: #38761d;">Q: Hello! When an
earthquake occurs, is it possible to tell what the aftermath is going to be
like? If so, is there any way to prevent it?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: Garamond, serif; font-size: 18pt;"><b><span style="color: #38761d;">- Tyler H</span></b><span style="color: #660000;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A: Urban engineers and
earthquake specialists have intensively studied the consequences of earthquakes
for at least a century and a half now. As a result, they have a pretty good
understanding of what the consequences of a large earthquake will be like: how
much damage will be caused by the initial event, and how much damage (and
subsequent disruption) by aftershocks. Perhaps surprisingly, most of the truly catastrophic damage of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake came from the fires that raged for days following the initial massive shaking event. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Engineers and urban planners have a good idea of where the water mains and power lines will be cut off, and where the economic corridors (food and fuel
distribution via highways and railways, for instance) will be disrupted. With the advent of the internet and computer systems, warehousing of food in southern California has been consolidated in far fewer locations than during the 1960's. This means that a serious potential side effect of a large San Andreas earthquake will be... starvation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Earthquakes cannot yet
be predicted, though that hope drives some of the most brilliant research minds I
have personally ever met. Consequently, efforts have been under way for
decades now, instead, on <b>*mitigating*</b> a large earthquake's effects. One aspect of this is "retro-fitting" older buildings to make them more earthquake
resistant (not<i> </i>earthquake <u>proof</u>). Hand in hand with this are efforts to establish more stringent building codes - so newer buildings
are already pretty earthquake resistant when they are first built. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">By hosting events like the Great
Southern California Shakeout, the US Geological Survey, along with local and regional emergency
personnel and individuals like you and I, all become more aware of what to
expect from one of these terrible events. If we have an idea of what will happen, we can build realistic contingencies into our planning. As an individual or a
family <b>you</b> can take part in this process by having a "72-hour kit" of
food, water, and other necessities on hand in your own home. If your cultural or religious tradition encourages you to help others, you may also want to "amp up" your emergency supplies to 6 months or a year's worth in order to help your neighbors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">We will never find
enough money to make ALL buildings and ALL infrastructure 100% earthquake-<u>proof</u>. We CAN make buildings
more earthquake <i>RESISTANT</i>, however. I bought a house in Washington State 12
years ago that met the more stringent modern building codes, so the insurance company
gave me a 15% discount on my home owners insurance. But my house is only <u>somewhat</u> more resistant
to earthquakes than one built in the 1950's - again, it's not earthquake-<u>proof</u>. I asked
how much earthquake insurance might cost me to add to my home owners policy? I
was told this would add 15% more onto my premium. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I told my insurance
agent to go ahead and add it on - it balances out in several senses of the
word.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="color: #660000; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
</div>
AskTheGeologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06354833219992420022noreply@blogger.com0